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PHJ No 4 (36) 2022 – Yu.Z.Kantor “In two months we shot over ten thousand people”. The activities of the “Arays’s team” in unknown documents of the FSB of Russia

The article based on declassified documents of the Central Archive of the FSB of Russia introduced into scientific circulation for the first time, examines the activities of one of the bloodiest collaborationist paramilitary formations that were part of the SD in Latvia. The Holocaust, the destruction of residents of “propartisan” villages, the massacre of prisoners of war — a previously taboo story told by its actors themselves: members of the “Arays’s team” arrested after the war.

PHJ No 4 (36) 2022 – L.V.Slutskaya. The influence of the Jewish and Belarusian groups on the national policy of Lithuania in the period 1918–1924

The author of the article examines impact of Jewish and Belarusian communities on Lithuanian national policies after the collapse of the Russian empire and proclamation of the Republic of Lithuania in February 1918. The reliance on ethnic minorities at the initial stage of the formation of the Lithuanian statehood contributed to its strengthening, made it possible to strengthen not only vertical, but also horizontal ties within the country. Changes in Lithuanian policy towards ethnic minorities associated with the formation of statehood on the basis of the titular (Lithuanian) nation are shown. The author concludes that strengthening the sovereignty and changes in international standing of Lithuania turned ethnic issues into a part of internal policy of the government of the interwar period.

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PHJ № 2 (34) 2022 — N. A. Vlasov. “RUSSIA IS THE ONLY POWER WHICH COULD DISTURB THE PEACE”: “RUSSIAN THREAT” IN OTTO VON BISMARCK’S THOUGHT DURING THE 1880S

1879 became a major turning point in German foreign policy: the defensive alliance treaty was signed with Austria-Hungary against Russia. German chancellor Otto von Bismarck justified this step among other things by the supposed “Russian threat”. He also often spoke on this matter during the subsequent decade. But did Bismarck really believe the existence of such a threat or just used it as a cover-up? To answer this question, we need to examine the overall image of Russia in Bismarck’s worldview. The author of this article analyzed the whole set of published works of Otto von Bismarck using primarily the Grounded Theory methodology. Main outcome of this research was a complex reconstruction of Bismarck’s views and opinions about Russia. Since early 1860s the “Iron Chancellor” had growing concerns about inner development of Russian empire. He did not only regard Russian officials incompetent and corrupt but also believed the existence of a large and powerful liberal and nationalist opposition in Russian elite. Bismarck found the strength of this opposition steadily growing, making it dangerous for the Russian emperor and forming a sort of “parallel government”. The existence of this “muscovite” elite grouping led not only to destabilization inside of Russia but also heavily impacted the Russian foreign policy making it inconsistent and aggressive. Bismarck’s notions of Russian domestic and foreign policy, reflected in hundreds of texts stretched over decades, constitute a coherent unity. The main finding is that during the 1880s the “Iron Chancellor” really believed that Russia posed a threat to Germany.

PHJ № 3 (35) 2022 – A. B. Gekht. Under the scrutiny of criticism: financial and industrial group of the Wallenberg family and public sentiment in Sweden in the 1960s

This article is devoted to the consideration of the diverse public rhetoric in the 1960s towards Sweden’s largest financial and industrial group controlled by the Wallenberg family. A discussion about the nature of Wallenberg’s activities outside the kingdom, primarily in the developing countries of Latin America and Africa, became especially noticeable. Among the consequences of the harsh criticism of the Wallenbergs was the subsequent strengthening of government regulatory measures in the Swedish economy in the late 1960s, which affected the financial sector, which was so important for the financial and industrial group under their control.

PHJ № 3 (35) 2022 – Å. Egge. Soviet diplomacy in Norway and Sweden during the interwar period — the role of Alexandra Kollontai

This article analyzes the activities of Soviet diplomacy in Norway and Sweden during the interwar period and the role of Alexandra Mikhailovna Kollontai in the development of Soviet-Norwegian and Soviet-Swedish relations during those years. Between 1923 and 1930 and in Sweden from 1930 to 1945 Kollontai was chief of the Soviet diplomatic mission in Norway. Kollontai actively established contacts and promoted initiatives that could enhance the prestige of the Soviet Union. She possessed a tremendous capacity for work and open-mindedness. Kollontai always remained loyal to her country. However, she had an independent mind and did not hesitate to voice her own opinion and give advice to her superiors.

PHJ № 3 (35) 2022 – А. А. Komarov. The Soviet Union and Finland’s aspirations for neutrality

After World War II Finland started to promote actively the idea of its neutrality. In this way the Finnish political class tried to enhance its profile on the international arena and distance itself from the military clauses of the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual assistance signed by the USSR and Finland on April 6, 1948. The article examines the history of Soviet attitudes towards Finland’s desire to position itself as a neutral country.

PHJ № 3 (35) 2022 – S. A. Isaev. The Creation of the U. S. Constitution: Pennsylvanian context of the process

The U. S. Constitution, which is still in force, was created by the Constitutional Convention, working behind closed doors in Philadelphia, May — September 1787. That time Philadelphia was the capital city of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, but not of the U. S., whereas Continental Congress was working in New York City. The article deals with a question: how the events taking place in Pennsylvania could influence the constitutional process of the U. S.? Author demonstrates that the political development of both U. S., and Pennsylvania had the same trend. In Pennsylvania the State Constitution of 1776 was in force, and there was a struggle for its remodeling, approaching success in the year 1790.

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PHJ № 1 (33) 2022 — P. Krafl. MEDIEVAL CATHOLIC ECCLESIASTICAL JUSTICE AS ILLUSTRATED BY CZECH DIOCESES IN THE PRE-HUSSITE PERIOD

The Catholic Church created an extensive system of law, which regulated various aspects of its activities and operation and the Church’s relationship to secular powers (canon law). The endeavour to enforce the observance of ecclesiastical laws and punish their violation led to the establishment of a judicial system. This study looks at the formation and nature of ecclesiastical justice within the territory of the Bohemian Lands: in Bohemia and Moravia. The Prague ecclesiastical province was situated within their territory, comprising the dioceses of Prague, Olomouc and Litomyšl. During the High Middle Ages, archdeacons ran archdeaconries, which were districts within a diocese. They had particular jurisdiction in areas of matrimonial law and matters of usury. Their importance declined in the 14th century. From the mid‑13th century, the dioceses formed central judicial bodies. It was at this time that the office of Official was created within the Diocese of Olomouc. The same office had been created within the Diocese of Prague by the end of that century. Additionally, the Vicar general (vicarius in spiritualibus) also had jurisdiction in the Diocese of Prague, and the specific office of Corrector was also established. Appeals from the metropolitan court were made to the Roman Rota Apostolic Court. Papal judges, so-called Conservators of laws, operated within diocese territories, ensuring the protection of ecclesiastical institutions (monasteries, chapters, churches, universities) from their enemies through court processes. Episcopal inquisition was replaced by papal inquisition, with the Holy See appointing an inquisitor, who acted within a diocese. Within Bohemia, a procedural guide was produced by Mikuláš Puchník. Bohemian reformist theologians in the early 15th century criticised the system of ecclesiastical justice, in particular its corruption and the fact that its judges were not impartial. Hussite theologians rejected the theory of evidence within the canonical process. Eventually, Jan Hus declared that the Law of God was the primary law, overriding all legislation, including ecclesiastical laws. This led to his rejection of ecclesiastical justice, appealing to Christ from the papal court where he was put on trial.